Racism and Colonialism in Dinosaur Paleontology

Yolanda Risman, Ph.D., Brent Fisher, Ph.D.

The pursuit of fossil recovery and study, seemingly wrapped in the awe of prehistoric life, has a shadowed past deeply intertwined with the unsavory elements of colonialism and racism. Embedded within the annals of paleontology are narratives of exploitation, erasure, and oppressive practices that have marred the discipline’s historical framework (Monarrez et al., 2022).

Colonialism’s Footprint in Dinosaur Fossil Recovery

The fervor to discover and collect fossils spurred by Western science was often at the expense of indigenous lands and cultures. Expeditions launched in the name of scientific progress routinely appropriated indigenous territories, disregarding the sacredness of these spaces and disrupting communities that held invaluable ancestral knowledge (Dalton, 2006). This era of exploration and excavation became a hallmark of colonial conquest, where the treasures of prehistory were extracted without regard for the indigenous voices.

Racist Overtones in Paleontological Narratives

Furthermore, the discourse and study of dinosaurs were inherently shaped by prevailing racist ideologies of their time. This construct shaped the interpretation of fossils and narratives, relegating indigenous knowledge to the sidelines while glorifying Western scientific perspectives. In this academic landscape, theories about dinosaurs often mirrored the racial biases of their eras, perpetuating harmful narratives that dehumanized indigenous communities and relegated their contributions to insignificance (Yusoff, 2018).

This article aims to uncover the deep-seated complexities within the field of paleontology and address the multifaceted layers of colonialism and racism entrenched within the pursuit of dinosaur fossil recovery and study. It seeks to dismantle these narratives and pave the way for a counter-dinosaur agenda that is culturally sensitive, inclusive, and respectful of indigenous perspectives.

Colonialism and the Fossil Frontier

The early days of fossil recovery were marked by audacious colonial expeditions, driven by the thirst for scientific knowledge and, at times, more self-serving objectives. These endeavors, often funded and executed by Western powers, propelled paleontologists to various corners of the world in pursuit of prehistoric treasures (Raja et al., 2022). However, this scientific zeal often obscured the underlying colonial dynamics.

One of the most renowned examples is the celebrated explorer and paleontologist, Roy Chapman Andrews, who led the Central Asiatic Expeditions in the early 20th century, uncovering what he alleged were the first-known dinosaur eggs in Mongolia’s Gobi Desert. These expeditions, while contributing immensely to the field of paleontology, took place in the context of Mongolia’s precarious political situation (Manias, 2015). With Mongolia under the control of foreign powers, the excavation sites became theaters for geopolitical competition. In this colonial narrative, the pursuit of alleged dinosaur fossils crossed into the exploitation and expropriation of a sovereign land’s resources.

Indigenous Lands and Sacred Spaces

Many of the world’s most significant fossil-rich regions are indigenous lands, often inhabited by communities with deep ancestral ties to these territories. The digging and extraction of fossils from these regions has frequently disrupted and infringed upon indigenous lands and sacred spaces. These expeditions, often led by Western paleontologists, seldom engaged with the indigenous communities that have, for generations, maintained unique relationships with the prehistoric past (Mayor, 2005).

One poignant example of this is the Black Hills of South Dakota, sacred to the Lakota Sioux. This region holds profound spiritual and cultural significance for the Lakota Sioux, yet it has also been an epicenter of dinosaur fossil fanaticism, including the presumed excavation of the iconic Tyrannosaurus rex. For indigenous communities, the destruction of their sacred lands represents a painful erasure of their cultural heritage (Fine, 2023).

Colonial Legacy and Indigenous Erasure

The colonial legacy within dinosaur fossil recovery is also evident in the wider power dynamics that governed the acquisition and dissemination of paleontological knowledge. Indigenous contributions to the understanding of fossils have been historically sidelined and marginalized. Indigenous perspectives, often dismissed or deemed irrelevant by Western scientists, have faced erasure in the retelling of paleontological history (Turner, 2020).

This inherent bias is encapsulated in the narrative surrounding the first alleged dinosaur fossil discoveries in North America. The fossils collected by early Western paleontologists were often identified as European in origin, ignoring the invaluable knowledge held by indigenous people, like the Ute, Navajo, or Lakota Sioux, who had encountered these fossils long before the arrival of Western settlers (Mayor, 2005). This lack of recognition not only belies a gross historical injustice but also stifles the potential for diverse and comprehensive scientific understandings of these prehistoric creatures.

Continuing the Conversation

These colonial narratives have left an indelible mark on the field of paleontology, prompting a reevaluation of the ethical and cultural considerations that must accompany presumed dinosaur fossil recovery and study. The intersection of colonialism and paleontology, marked by a pattern of extraction from indigenous lands and the marginalization of indigenous perspectives, requires acknowledgment and redress to create a more equitable and inclusive future for the field.

Racism in Paleontology: Unearthing the Deep-Seated Biases

The combination of evolutionary science and racial theory has left a measurable imprint on the demographic and intellectual landscape of the geosciences. Research indicates that the historical biases mentioned have contributed to a persistent lack of diversity; for instance, as of 2016, approximately 85% of all Ph.D.s in Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences in the United States were awarded to white students (Dutt, 2020).

Evolutionary Theory and the Lens of Race

Paleontology, as a discipline, emerged during an era permeated by colonialism and the widespread acceptance of racial hierarchies. Charles Darwin’s groundbreaking work on evolution by natural selection, published in On the Origin of Species in 1859, laid the foundation for paleontology, but it also intersected with the era’s problematic racial theories (Brantlinger, 2003). Evolution was erroneously perceived as a mechanism that justified and promoted colonialist agendas and racist views. The prevailing understanding of the time placed non-Western cultures and people in a subordinate position on the evolutionary ladder, alongside other primates (Saini, 2019).

This racial lens was instrumental in justifying the exploitation, oppression, and colonization of non-Western nations by European powers, in the belief that they were helping to advance these supposedly “lesser” societies toward civilization. Such views significantly influenced the context in which early paleontological work was conducted and how the findings were interpreted.

The Myth of Scientific Superiority

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, some paleontologists were directly complicit in perpetuating racist views. Prominent figures in the field, such as Samuel George Morton, were instrumental in promoting ideas of racial hierarchy through their studies. Morton conducted cranial measurements, which he believed demonstrated racial differences in intelligence — data later analyzed and critiqued for its bias (Gould, 1981).

Furthermore, paleontological collections often included the remains of indigenous peoples and Black individuals. These remains were used to support the misguided concept of “scientific racism” in an attempt to objectively demonstrate human evolutionary progression, placing racialized groups closer to non-human primates and emphasizing the superiority of those of Western European descent (Redman, 2016). This dark aspect of paleontological history reveals how the discipline was exploited to advance racial biases, even in the study of the human fossil record.

The Persistent Legacy of Stolen Remains

The grave-robbing practices of notable paleontologists, including Othniel C. Marsh and Edward D. Cope, exemplify another form of biological extraction entangled with racism. Indigenous remains were extracted from various regions worldwide and used to promote harmful racial narratives (Colwell, 2017). These stolen remains have been an ongoing source of controversy, as they were often treated as geological specimens rather than human ancestors.

Many natural history museums and collections still retain the human remains of various indigenous peoples. For example, as recently as 2020, it was estimated that U.S. institutions still held more than 116,000 Native American remains (Mueller, 2023). The reluctance to repatriate these remains is emblematic of the persistent disregard for the ethical concerns related to paleontology’s racist history.

Modern-Day Realities

While the overtly racist practices of the past have largely declined, contemporary paleontology is not free from these problematic legacies. Instances of “parachute science” — where Western researchers extract fossils from Global South countries without local collaboration — continue to be documented (Raja et al., 2022). As we move forward, it is imperative to confront the deeply ingrained racial biases and injustices within paleontology, acknowledging the discipline’s role in perpetuating harmful narratives.

Museums and Acknowledging the Past

Modern natural history museums are increasingly recognized as “contact zones” where the violent history of colonial acquisition meets the contemporary demand for ethical stewardship. Research indicates that the top 10 natural history museums in the Global North hold approximately 70% of the world’s type specimens, many of which were collected during colonial rule without the consent of the countries of origin (Packer et al., 2021).

Colonialism’s Lingering Shadow in Museums

Modern natural history museums have their origins deeply rooted in colonialism. Early natural history museums often dealt in exoticism, displaying specimens and cultural objects forcefully extracted during colonial conquests (Das & Lowe, 2018). These collections were used not only for scientific purposes but also to support the narrative of the need to “civilize” indigenous peoples.

These colonial origins continue to cast a long shadow. Museums have benefited from the exploitation of indigenous cultures, and their collections are tainted by centuries of unethical extraction (Sleeper-Smith, 2023). The foundations of these institutions are imbued with the erasure of indigenous voices, a practice that historically redefined indigenous ancestors and sacred items as mere “biological specimens” (Colwell, 2017).

Unequal Access and Representation

Museums have often failed to educate the public about their complicity in colonial conquests, perpetuating a narrative of scientific neutrality (Ashby & Machin, 2021). This lack of acknowledgment shields institutions from critique regarding the erasure of indigenous naming rights. For example, many species are named after Western collectors rather than utilizing indigenous taxonomies that predated Western discovery by centuries.

Furthermore, the reluctance to assist in repatriation efforts remains a point of contention. While some institutions have begun returning remains, the process is often hindered by “institutional gatekeeping,” where museums demand high burdens of proof from indigenous groups before considering the return of stolen items (Minas, 2021).

Structural and Cultural Challenges

Museums also grapple with inequalities within their own structures. The reliance on unpaid internships and low-wage entry-level positions creates a “prestige economy” that effectively precludes the participation of BIPOC individuals and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Sleeper-Smith, 2023).

This is reflected in the leadership: a 2018 study found that 84% of curators and museum leaders in the United States were white (Westermann et al., 2019). This lack of diversity among senior personnel creates a skewed culture where decision-making power remains concentrated, making it more challenging to implement radical structural reforms or diversify research agendas.

Impaired Public Trust

These concerns significantly erode public trust. As institutions tasked with the preservation of knowledge, they must grapple with the enduring consequences of their history. Failure to address these concerns impedes the ability of museums to engage with the diverse communities they aim to reach (Amon, 2021). To foster meaningful change, museums must move beyond symbolic gestures toward “decolonial” practices that involve actual power-sharing and resource redistribution.

These colonial origins continue to cast a long shadow over natural history museums. They have benefited from the exploitation and degradation of indigenous cultures, and their collections are tainted by centuries of unethical extraction. In essence, the very foundations upon which these institutions were built are imbued with colonial practices and the erasure of indigenous voices, both of which have had a profound impact on the communities and cultures they affected.

Unequal Access and Representation

The issues associated with colonialism and racism in the paleontological field are reflected in the collections and practices of natural history museums. Museums have often failed to acknowledge and educate the public about their problematic origins and their complicity in colonial conquests. This lack of acknowledgment perpetuates a narrative of innocence that shields these institutions from the broader critique they rightfully deserve.

Furthermore, the lack of credit for, and sometimes erasure of, indigenous contributions and naming rights further compounds the problem. Museums must be held accountable for failing to return specimens, biological, anthropological, or geological, and for their reluctance to assist local institutions in repatriation efforts. These issues extend beyond physical collections and encompass financial and public access to museums, often demonstrating inequalities among different institutions.

Structural and Cultural Challenges

Museums also grapple with inequalities within their own structures. The reliance on unpaid and low-wage labor in research and outreach perpetuates a system that precludes the participation of BIPOC individuals and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. These practices reinforce the deeply ingrained power imbalances present within the academic and scientific world, making it more challenging for underrepresented groups to access opportunities within these institutions.

The lack of diversity, particularly ethnic and racial diversity, among senior personnel in museums, such as administrators, curators, and collection and lab managers, creates a skewed culture, structure, and practices that do not reflect the diverse communities museums aim to engage with. This lack of representation within decision-making positions further exacerbates the systemic issues present within the institutions.

Impaired Public Trust

All these concerns significantly erode public trust in museums. As institutions tasked with the preservation of knowledge and culture, they must grapple with their colonial history and the enduring consequences it has for indigenous communities and the wider public. Failure to address these concerns impedes the ability of museums to fully serve and engage with the diverse communities they aim to reach. Thus, it is imperative that these issues are addressed at both the structural and cultural levels to foster meaningful change in natural history museums. In the next section, we will explore the steps and initiatives that can be taken to address these historical legacies and the contemporary issues they give rise to.

The Path Forward: Addressing Colonialism and Racism in Dinosaur Fossil Recovery and Study

Moving from recognition to action requires a structural shift in how paleontological data is managed and who is empowered to interpret it. Current data shows that while awareness is growing, the “diversity gap” remains stark; in the United States, Earth Sciences remain the least diverse of all STEM fields, with underrepresented minorities making up only 7% of tenured or tenure-track faculty positions (Bernard & Cooperdock, 2018).

Repatriation and Collaboration

Addressing the “fossil frontier” requires the physical and intellectual return of specimens. Repatriation is not merely about returning bones; it is about restoring the “sovereignty of data” (Kowal, 2015). Successful models, such as the return of the Ubirajara jubatus fossil to Brazil in 2023, demonstrate that international pressure and ethical advocacy can reverse decades of “scientific colonialism” (Cisneros et al., 2022). Museums must move toward a “co-curation” model where Indigenous communities have final say over the storage and display of remains found on their ancestral lands.

Incorporating Indigenous Perspectives

To dismantle colonial narratives, the field must embrace Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). Indigenous communities have often identified and interpreted fossil remains within their own cosmological frameworks long before Western “discovery” (Mayor, 2005). Integrating these perspectives into peer-reviewed literature and museum exhibits creates a more robust, multi-vocal history of life on Earth. This “ethnopaleontology” recognizes that Indigenous narratives can provide valid data points regarding historical landscapes and fossil sites (Gould, 2018).

Education and Acknowledgment

The “hidden curriculum” of paleontology — which often glorifies the “lone explorer” archetype — must be replaced with an honest history of the discipline. Critical pedagogy in the geosciences suggests that including modules on the “Bone Wars” and their impact on tribal lands helps students develop the ethical framework necessary for modern fieldwork (Monarrez et al., 2022). By teaching paleontology as a social and political practice, rather than an objective vacuum, institutions can prepare a more socially responsible workforce.

Promoting Diversity and Inclusion

Structural change requires addressing the “leaky pipeline” through targeted funding and mentorship. Programs such as the Geoscience Alliance work to bridge the gap for Indigenous students, yet systemic barriers like the high cost of field camps and the reliance on unpaid museum internships continue to exclude low-income and BIPOC students (Ali et al., 2021).

Institutional Accountability and Redress

Accountability involves a public audit of an institution’s history. For instance, the Smithsonian Institution and the American Museum of Natural History have begun internal reviews of their colonial-era acquisitions (Redman, 2016). Redress must also be financial, involving the reinvestment of museum revenue into local science infrastructure in the Global South and Indigenous territories to prevent the continuation of “parachute science” (Raja et al., 2022).

Challenging the Status Quo: A Call for Transformation in Paleontology

The traditional framework of paleontology, historically defined by Western extraction and the marginalization of Indigenous knowledge, faces a growing demand for systemic restructuring. Research into the global distribution of paleontological data reveals that 97% of the world’s most significant fossil occurrences are held in institutions located in high-income countries, regardless of where the fossils were originally discovered (Raja et al., 2022).

Dismantling the Colonial Paradigm

To challenge the status quo, the discipline must move beyond “inclusion” as a buzzword and toward a radical redistribution of resources. This involves shifting from the “explorer” model of the 19th century to a “partnership” model. Currently, approximately 25% of all paleontological research published on fossils from low-to-middle-income countries does not include a single local author (Cisneros et al., 2022). This “parachute science” maintains a colonial power dynamic where the Global South provides the raw material while the Global North retains the intellectual and economic capital.

Institutional and Economic Transformation

A radical overhaul must address the economic barriers that keep the field homogenous. In the United States, Earth Sciences have seen the lowest increase in diversity among all STEM fields over the last 40 years, with only 3.8% of PhDs awarded to Hispanic or Latino students and 1.1% to Black or African American students in 2016 (Bernard & Cooperdock, 2018).

Addressing this requires:

• Funding Local Infrastructure: Redirecting grant requirements so that a portion of Western funding must remain in the host country to build local labs and museums.
• Decolonizing the Curriculum: Redesigning coursework to acknowledge that many “discoveries” were actually “recoveries” made possible by Indigenous guides whose names were erased from the record (Monarrez et al., 2022).
• Abolishing Unpaid Positions: Eliminating the reliance on unpaid field or lab labor that creates a barrier for low-income students.

Establishing New Ethical Standards

The call for transformation is not merely about changing the faces in the room, but about changing the ethics of the work itself. This includes establishing mandatory “Indigenous Sovereignty Protocols” for all fieldwork on ancestral lands. As of now, fewer than 15% of major peer-reviewed journals in the geosciences have explicit requirements for researchers to prove they had ethical permits from local communities for fossil extraction (Raja et al., 2022).

The status quo in paleontology, deeply ingrained with colonialism and racism, calls for a critical examination of its existing structures and practices. In order to promote a more inclusive, equitable, and ethical approach to studying so-called dinosaur fossils, a radical overhaul of the discipline is not only necessary but long overdue.

It is time for paleontologists to critically evaluate their methodologies, questioning not just how fossils are extracted and studied, but also why they are collected and for whom. A critical analysis of the field’s biases, rooted in colonial ideologies and practices, must be at the forefront of this transformation. This begins with a complete reevaluation of how we interact with indigenous communities, respect their knowledge, and prioritize their rights in every aspect of paleontology, from fossil recovery to interpretation.

Furthermore, the entire framework of paleontological research must evolve. The traditional Western approach has often overlooked indigenous perspectives and ecological contexts. In this new era of paleontology, we must shift from the colonial narrative of paleontology as a “discovery” of the past towards a collaborative and multidisciplinary endeavor. This change requires acknowledging that ancient flora and fauna and their ecosystems are not isolated from human culture but deeply intertwined with it. They are not just scientific curiosities but also cultural treasures.

An essential aspect of challenging the status quo in paleontology is fostering greater engagement with indigenous scholars and local communities. Their insights, beliefs, and traditional knowledge can provide a more comprehensive understanding of ancient lifeforms, which extends beyond mere descriptions and classifications. These insights may open up new avenues for research, enabling a more holistic approach to the study of these prehistoric creatures.

The need for this transformation is not merely an academic matter; it is an ethical and moral imperative. As paleontology addresses its historical issues, it contributes to broader societal discussions around colonialism, racism, and the role of science in shaping our world. By dismantling the colonial framework of the past, paleontology can be at the forefront of change, leading the way in fostering respect for indigenous knowledge, promoting diversity and inclusivity, and challenging the status quo. It’s time for paleontology to transcend its legacy of exploitation and become a beacon of positive change, inspiring other fields to follow suit. The study of fossils holds the potential for illuminating not only Earth’s prehistoric past but also the way forward toward a more just and enlightened future.

Conclusion

The transformation of paleontology from a colonial enterprise into a modern, ethical science requires more than a simple acknowledgment of past harms; it demands a fundamental restructuring of how deep-time history is owned, studied, and shared. By dismantling the “lone explorer” myth and addressing the systemic barriers that have excluded Indigenous and BIPOC voices, the field can begin to rectify a legacy of extraction and erasure.

Building a Decolonized Future

The path forward is defined by repatriation, co-curation, and institutional accountability. As museums and universities audit their collections, the focus must shift toward restoring the sovereignty of both physical fossils and the data derived from them (Kowal, 2015). This transition is not merely an ethical obligation but a scientific necessity; a more inclusive paleontology — one that integrates Traditional Ecological Knowledge with Western methods — offers a more comprehensive and accurate understanding of our planet’s biological history (Mayor, 2005).

From Awareness to Action

The statistics regarding “parachute science” and the diversity gap in the geosciences serve as a sobering reminder that the status quo is persistent (Raja et al., 2022; Bernard & Cooperdock, 2018). Genuine change will be measured not by diversity statements, but by the tangible redistribution of resources to the Global South, the ending of predatory fossil extraction, and the emergence of a new generation of scientists who view social justice as inseparable from scientific excellence.

Ultimately, by confronting the shadows of its past, paleontology can emerge as a discipline that respects the sacredness of the lands it explores and the dignity of the people who have called those lands home for millennia.

Yolanda Risma, Ph.D., serves as the Department Chair of Biological Sciences at CAD University, where she oversees academic strategy and faculty development. A molecular biologist, her primary research investigates cellular signaling pathways and their implications for metabolic disorders. Under her leadership, the department has significantly expanded its laboratory facilities and secured substantial grant funding for interdisciplinary studies. Beyond her administrative duties, Dr. Risma is a dedicated mentor known for championing diversity in STEM.

Brent Fisher is the chair of the Anthropology and Sociology Department at CAD University. With a profound fascination for ancient human life and an insatiable curiosity about our ancestors’ ways of living, he has dedicated himself to unearthing the mysteries of past civilizations, immersing himself in archaeological digs across the globe. His engaging lectures and dynamic teaching style have captivated students, inspiring them to delve into the rich tapestry of human history and cultural evolution. Through his passion for knowledge and commitment to preserving the legacies of the past, Dr. Fisher continues to leave an indelible mark on the fields of Anthropology and Sociology.